Grammar for Writing
Chapter 3, Lesson 5
"Fragments and Run-Ons," pp. 91-93 / Workbook pp. 67-69
What is a Clause?
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb (predicate). A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment."
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Ex: A band of musicians entertained a crowd of tourists in City Market.
A subordinate (or dependent) clause cannot stand by itself and make good sense. It must be combined with an independent clause so that it becomes part of a sentence that can stand by itself. Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, subordinate clauses are said to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier (adjective or adverb). There are three basic kinds of subordinate clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a subordinate clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
When the movie is over, we'll go downtown.
John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject.
While waiters served cold drinks in plastic cups, a band of musicians entertained a crowd of tourists in City Market.
My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me.
The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace.
While waiters served cold drinks in plastic cups, a band of musicians that had been brought in from Atlanta entertained a
crowd oftourists in City Market.
What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine.
Do you know what he knows [object]?
What can you tell me about what he has done this year[object of the preposition "about"]?
Whoever phoned us didn't let the phone ring long enough
Who your ancestors were makes no difference to me.
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Ex: A band of musicians entertained a crowd of tourists in City Market.
A subordinate (or dependent) clause cannot stand by itself and make good sense. It must be combined with an independent clause so that it becomes part of a sentence that can stand by itself. Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, subordinate clauses are said to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier (adjective or adverb). There are three basic kinds of subordinate clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a subordinate clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
- Adverb clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction and provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why.
When the movie is over, we'll go downtown.
John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject.
While waiters served cold drinks in plastic cups, a band of musicians entertained a crowd of tourists in City Market.
- Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. They begin with an relative pronoun (who, what, that) or a relative adverb (where, when, why).
My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me.
The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace.
While waiters served cold drinks in plastic cups, a band of musicians that had been brought in from Atlanta entertained a
crowd oftourists in City Market.
- Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. Noun clauses also begin with a relative pronoun (who, what, that) or a relative adverb (where, when, why)
What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine.
Do you know what he knows [object]?
What can you tell me about what he has done this year[object of the preposition "about"]?
Whoever phoned us didn't let the phone ring long enough
Who your ancestors were makes no difference to me.
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Recognizing Adjective Clauses
Recognize an adjective clause when you see one. An adjective clause will meet three requirements:
relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb
relative pronoun as subject + verb
Here are some examples:
Diane felt manipulated by her beagle Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie.
Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb.
Chewing with her mouth open is one reason why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie.
Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].
Growling ferociously, Oreo and Skeeter, Madison's two dogs, competed for the hard boiled egg that bounced across the
kitchen floor.
That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; bounced = verb.
Laughter erupted from Annamarie, who hiccuped for seven hours afterward.
Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; hiccuped = verb.
Avoid writing a sentence fragment. An adjective clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each adjective clause to a main clause.
- First, it will contain a subject and verb.
- Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why].
- Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one?
relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb
relative pronoun as subject + verb
Here are some examples:
Diane felt manipulated by her beagle Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie.
Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb.
Chewing with her mouth open is one reason why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie.
Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].
Growling ferociously, Oreo and Skeeter, Madison's two dogs, competed for the hard boiled egg that bounced across the
kitchen floor.
That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; bounced = verb.
Laughter erupted from Annamarie, who hiccuped for seven hours afterward.
Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; hiccuped = verb.
Avoid writing a sentence fragment. An adjective clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each adjective clause to a main clause.
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Combining Sentences with Adjective Clauses
So far in our study of adjective clauses, we've learned the following:
Consider how these two sentences can be combined:
My mp3 player fell apart after a few weeks. My mp3 player cost over $200.
By substituting the relative pronoun which for the subject of the second sentence, we can create a single sentence containing an adjective clause:
My mp3 player, which cost over $200, fell apart after a few weeks.
Or we may choose to substitute which for the subject of the first sentence:
My mp3 player, which fell apart after a few weeks, cost over $200.
Put what you think is the main idea in the main clause, the secondary (or subordinate) idea in the adjective clause. And keep in
mind that an adjective clause usually appears after the noun it modifies.
Here is another example:
The first alarm clock woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet.
The first alarm clock was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.
The first alarm clock, which was invented by Leonardo da Vinci, woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet.
The first alarm clock, which woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet, was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.
- First, it will contain a subject and verb.
- Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why].
- Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind?How many? or Which one?
Consider how these two sentences can be combined:
My mp3 player fell apart after a few weeks. My mp3 player cost over $200.
By substituting the relative pronoun which for the subject of the second sentence, we can create a single sentence containing an adjective clause:
My mp3 player, which cost over $200, fell apart after a few weeks.
Or we may choose to substitute which for the subject of the first sentence:
My mp3 player, which fell apart after a few weeks, cost over $200.
Put what you think is the main idea in the main clause, the secondary (or subordinate) idea in the adjective clause. And keep in
mind that an adjective clause usually appears after the noun it modifies.
Here is another example:
The first alarm clock woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet.
The first alarm clock was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.
The first alarm clock, which was invented by Leonardo da Vinci, woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet.
The first alarm clock, which woke the sleeper by gently rubbing his feet, was invented by Leonardo da Vinci.
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Recognizing Adverb Clauses
Recognize an adverb clause when you see one. An adverb clause will meet three requirements:
Consider these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
- Like adjective clauses, it will contain a subject and verb.
- It will begin with an introductory word, subordinate conjunction, that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
- Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How?When? or Why?
Consider these examples:
Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
- How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.
- When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner, an adverb clause.
After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
- Why did Danielle cook eggs? Because she could easily chew an omelet, an adverb clause.
Subordinating Conjunctions and the Relationship They Show
Opposition/Concession
although
though even though whereas while |
Effect-cause
because
since as |
Condition
if
unless |
Time
after while
before since until when as soon as |
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Combining Sentences with Adverb Clauses
As we've discussed, adverb clauses show the relationship and relative importance of ideas in sentences.
Combined: It is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp because the species is unknown in Egypt.
Combined: So that no one would ever find it, the boy hid the gerbil.
Combined: Our neighbors have gained many new friends since they have installed a swimming pool in their backyard.
- As a subordinate clause, it will contain a subject and verb.
- It will begin with an introductory word, a subordinate conjunction, that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
- Finally, the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How?When? or Why?
- It is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp.The species is unknown in Egypt.
Combined: It is unlikely that Cleopatra actually committed suicide with an asp because the species is unknown in Egypt.
- The boy hid the gerbil. No one would ever find it.
Combined: So that no one would ever find it, the boy hid the gerbil.
- Our neighbors installed a swimming pool in their backyard. They have gained many new friends.
Combined: Our neighbors have gained many new friends since they have installed a swimming pool in their backyard.
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Let's Take a Break!
Instead of introducing new material, let's review what we've learned about two types of subordinate clauses: adjective clauses and adverb clauses. Adjective and adverb clauses both
adverb [when, where, or why]
an adverb clause begins with a subordinate conjunction
an adverb clause functions as an adverb, answering the questions How? When? or Why?
- contain a subject and verb.
- begin with an introductory word,
adverb [when, where, or why]
an adverb clause begins with a subordinate conjunction
- Finally, the clause functions as a part of speech in the sentence
an adverb clause functions as an adverb, answering the questions How? When? or Why?
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Recognizing Noun Clauses
A noun clause is the third type of subordinate clause. Like adjective and adverb clauses, a noun clause will meet three requirements:
Subject: What she said was worth remembering.
Direct Object: I don’t know where the library is.
Indirect Object: The judges will award whoever finishes last a prize.
Subject Complement: His problem was how he could earn a living.
Object of a Preposition: The pirates quarreled over why they were lost.
Appositive: His idea, that all people are equal, is central to American democracy.
- As a subordinate, it will contain a subject and verb.
- It will begin with an introductory word that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought. Words that introduce noun clauses include that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever.
- Finally, you will notice that the clause functions as a noun in the sentence.
Subject: What she said was worth remembering.
Direct Object: I don’t know where the library is.
Indirect Object: The judges will award whoever finishes last a prize.
Subject Complement: His problem was how he could earn a living.
Object of a Preposition: The pirates quarreled over why they were lost.
Appositive: His idea, that all people are equal, is central to American democracy.
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Combining Sentences with Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used as a noun. Noun clauses can appear anywhere in a sentence that a noun can.
Subject: What I want is to be happy.
Subject Complement: Ice cream is what I want.
Indirect Object: My trip will make what I want a reality.
Direct Object: I told you what I want.
Object of a Preposition: He is concerned about what I want.
When you use a noun clause to combine sentences, you will usually need to introduce the clause with one of the following words, depending on the intended meaning:
who whom which what when where why how that
Original: The principal announced something. Our student council is meeting today.
Combined: The principal announced that our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced when our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced why our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced where our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced whom our student council is meeting today.
Subject: What I want is to be happy.
Subject Complement: Ice cream is what I want.
Indirect Object: My trip will make what I want a reality.
Direct Object: I told you what I want.
Object of a Preposition: He is concerned about what I want.
When you use a noun clause to combine sentences, you will usually need to introduce the clause with one of the following words, depending on the intended meaning:
who whom which what when where why how that
Original: The principal announced something. Our student council is meeting today.
Combined: The principal announced that our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced when our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced why our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced where our student council is meeting today.
The principal announced whom our student council is meeting today.
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Independent and Subordinate Clauses - Practice Test
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